Gender Determinants of Agroecological Practices in Wetlands in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract

Wetlands are extensively and differently exploited based on gender because they are among the most productive ecosystems on which farmers rely for survival. In the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, wetland degradation and loss are mostly caused by changes in wetland use, which has an impact on ecological functions and biodiversity. The objectives of this study were to assess gender differential activities in the wetlands, to analyse gender-related factors affecting farmers’ utilisation of improved agroecological practices, and to assess the institutional arrangements governing gendered wetland access and utilisation in South Kivu. The research was conducted in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The data was collected from March to May 2023. A mixed-method approach was used, which included farmer surveys, key informant interviews, and focus groups discussion. Descriptive and inferential analyses were used to analyse quantitative data. To compare the gender gap in agricultural income, the Exogenous Switching Regression (ESR) model and Blinder Oaxaca decomposition model were used. The gender determinants of agroecological practices were investigated using a multivariate probit (MVP) model and Chi square test. The qualitative data was thematized for wetlands governance using thematic framework analysis. The findings of this study revealed that position and activities in wetland farming differed depending on gender, socio-economic variables, and wetland location and governance. Male household head represented more than 70% of farmers in the Uvira wetlands and between 70 to 95% in Kabare. Female household heads represented less than 30% of farmers surveyed in Uvira, and between 6% and 30% in Kabare. Men were more likely to be involved in wetland farming because they had easier access to land and money. Farm income for male household head were 16% higher than that of female household head. Many factors contribute to the gap, including territory, employment, the duration of wetlands use, the use of organic fertilizers, market-oriented xiv agriculture education, and land access. Both males and females’ households head cultivated identical crops during high agricultural production seasons (the rainy season for rice in Uvira and the dry season for vegetables). During low-production seasons, crop selection is genderbased. Females were interested in staple crops, whereas males were interested in seasonally adapted cash crops. Men and women used traditional and indigenous agroecological practices to increase yields and ensure wetland sustainability. The Chi-square test (at the 5% and 10% thresholds) revealed that the use of mechanical weeding, hedging, shallow tillage, direct seeding, bio pesticides, clearings and weeds was gender dependent. More than 40% of men used mechanical weeding, compared to 25% of women. Hedging was practiced by only 1.5% of women compared to 8.5% of men. Shallow tillage was practiced by about 20% of men compared to 7% of women. Men used bio pesticides (18%) compared to 9% of women. About 60% of men used clearings and weeds compared to 49% of women. Wetland governance was shared by the local government, customary leaders, concession holders, and farmers who belonged to farmers’ organisations or agricultural cooperatives. Wetland governance was based more on utilisation than on sustainable conservation. There is need to regulate and coordinate wetland activities to ensure gender equity in wetlands’ access and utilisation. For sustainable agriculture, the government should provide incentive subsidies to farmers who comply with agroecological practices.